The present invention relates to methods of encapsidating a recombinant viral nucleic acid having a foreign nucleotide sequence substituted for the nucleotide sequence of the virus encoding at least a portion of a protein necessary for encapsidation. More particularly, the invention relates to methods and compositions for generating an immune response in a subject by using such a recombinant virus.
Live or attenuated viruses have long been used to stimulate the immune system in a subject. Poliovirus is an attractive candidate system for delivery of antigens to the mucosal immune system because of several biological features inherent to the virus. First, the pathogenesis of the poliovirus is well-studied and the important features identified. The poliovirus is naturally transmitted by an oral-fecal route and is stable in the harsh conditions of the intestinal tract. Primary replication occurs in the oropharynx and gastro-intestinal tract, with subsequent spread to the lymph nodes. Horstmann, D. M. et al. (1959) JAMA 170:1-8. Second, the attenuated strains of poliovirus are safe for humans, and are routinely administered to the general population in the form of the Sabin oral vaccine. The incorporation of foreign genes into the attenuated strains would be an attractive feature that should pose no more of a health risk than that associated with administration of the attenuated vaccines alone. Third, the entire poliovirus has been cloned, the nucleic acid sequence determined, and the viral proteins identified. An infectious cDNA is also available for poliovirus which has allowed further genetic manipulation of the virus. Further, previous studies using the attenuated vaccine strains of poliovirus have demonstrated that a long-lasting systemic and mucosal immunity is generated after administration of the vaccine. Sanders, D. Y. and Cramblett, H. G. (1974) J. Ped. 84:406-408; Melnick, J. (1978) Bull. World Health Organ. 56:21-38; Racaniello, V. R. and Baltimore, D. (1981) Science 214:916-919; Ogra, P. L. (1984) Rev. Infect. Dis. 6:S361-S368.
Recent epidemiological data suggest that worldwide more than seventy percent of infections with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are acquired by heterosexual intercourse through mucosal surfaces of the genital tract and rectum. Most HIV vaccines developed to date have been designed to preferentially stimulate the systemic humoral immune system and have relied on immunization with purified, whole human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-1 proteins (Haynes, B. F. (May 1993) Science 260:1279-1286.), or infection with a recombinant virus or microbe which expresses HIV-1 proteins (McGhee, J. R., and Mestecky, J. (1992) AIDS Res. Rev. 2:289-312). A general concern with these studies is that the method of presentation of the HIV-1 antigen to the immune system will not stimulate systemic and mucosal tissues to generate effective immunity at mucosal surfaces. Given the fact that the virus most often encounters a mucosal surface during sexual (vaginal or anal) transmission, a vaccine designed to stimulate both the systemic and mucosal immune systems is essential. McGhee, J. R., and Mestecky, J. (1992) AIDS Res. Rev. 2:289-312; Forrest, B. D. (1992) AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 8:1523-1525.
In 1991, a group of researchers reported the construction and characterization of chimeric HIV-1-poliovirus genomes. Choi, W. S. et al. (June 1991) J. Virol. 65(6):2875-2883. Segments of the HIV-1 proviral DNA containing the gag, pol, and env gene were inserted into the poliovirus cDNA so that the translational reading frame was conserved between the HIV-1 and poliovirus genes. The RNAs derived from the in vitro transcription of the genomes, when transfected into cells, replicated and expressed the appropriate HIV-1 protein as a fusion with the poliovirus P1 protein. Choi, W. S. et al. (June 1991) J. Virol. 65(6):2875-2883. However, since the chimeric HIV-1-poliovirus genomes were constructed by replacing poliovirus capsid genes with the HIV-1 gag, pol, or env genes, the chimeric HIV-1-genomes were not capable of encapsidation after introduction into host cells. Choi, W. S. et al. (June 1991) J. Virol. 65(6):2875-2883. Furthermore, attempts to encapsidate the chimeric genome by cotransfection with the poliovirus infectious RNA yielded no evidence of encapsidation. Choi, W. S. et al. (June 1991) J. Virol. 65(6):2875-2883. Without encapsidation, the chimeric poliovirus genome cannot be employed to deliver immunogenic proteins to the immune system, and thus is of little practical use.
In 1992, another group of researchers reported the encapsidation of a poliovirus replicon which incorporated the reporter gene, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), in place of the region coding for capsid proteins VP4, VP2, and a portion of VP3 in the genome of poliovirus type 3. Percy, N. et al. (Aug. 1992) J. Virol. 66(8):5040-5046. Encapsidation of the poliovirus replicon was accomplished by first transfecting host cells with the poliovirus replicon and then infecting the host cells with type 3 poliovirus. Percy, N. et al. (Aug. 1992) J. Virol 66(8):5040, 5044. The formation of the capsid around the poliovirus genome is believed to be the result of interactions between capsid proteins and the poliovirus genome. Therefore, it is likely that the yield of encapsidated viruses obtained by Percy et al. consisted of a mixture of encapsidated poliovirus replicons and encapsidated nucleic acid from the type 3 poliovirus. The encapsidated type 3 poliovirus most likely represents a greater proportion of the encapsidated viruses than does the encapsidated poliovirus replicons. The Percy et al. method of encapsidating a poliovirus replicon is, therefore, an inefficient system for producing encapsidated recombinant poliovirus nucleic acid.
Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide a method of encapsidating a recombinant poliovirus genome which results in a stock of encapsidated viruses substantially composed of the recombinant poliovirus genome. Such a method would enable the efficient production of encapsidated poliovirus nucleic acid for use in compositions for stimulating an immune response to foreign proteins encoded by the recombinant poliovirus genome.